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Semiconductor and Electronics

Semiconductor and Electronics Notes for Class 11 - 12 Learning Outcomes Explain band theory of solid materials Explain conductor, non-conductor, and semiconductor by band theory Explain intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors Explain the concept of electron and hole in semiconductors Explain the p-type and n-type semiconductor Explain the construction and function of the junction diode Explain rectification Explain the construction and function of a junction transistor Explain the use of transistor as amplifier and switch Explain conversion of a different number system Explain Binary operation Analysis of the program of different logic gate Explain band theory of solid materials Energy Band:   There is a slight difference in the energy of electrons revolving in the same orbit in an atom of any matter. The range between the maximum and minimum energy level of these electrons situated in the same orbit is called the energy band. The energy level and energy band are not the same. The energ
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Astronomy

Astronomy Notes for Class 11-12 Big Bang The expansion of universe indicates an initial point from where it is expanding. About 15 hundred crore years ago it started from space time singularity.  At the beginning, it was infinitely dense and infinitely hot and it expands after big bang in all directions. After starting to expand it become cooler and goes through some intermediate changes. If a star has enough mass and density then its gravity field will be so strong that no light can emit from that star. Before travelling away from the star, gravitational field will be so strong that no light can emit from that star.  Before traveling away from the star, gravitational pull will take that back. Scientist Michell thought that this type of stars can be in huge amount. We can not see those stars because no light emits from them. We can only feel the gravitational pull those of that object. These objects are called black hole. Artificial Satellite A man made spacecraft at a definite height
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Introduction to Modern Physics

Introduction to Modern Physics for Class 11 -12 Frame of Reference The coordinate system in a three dimensional space with respect to which we can describe the motion of an object is called frame of reference. Inertial Frame of Reference The frame of references moving with constant velocity to each other in which Newton's law of motion can be applied are called inertial frame of reference. Galilean Transformation Taking time as absolute and ignoring postulates of special theory of relativity, the equations obtained which establish relations between two sets of coordinates of two fame of references moving with velocity constant relative to each other and time are called Galilean transformation. Lorentz Transformation Taking time as non absolute and applying postulates of special theory of relativity, the equations obtained which establish relations two sets of coordinates two frames of reference moving with constant velocity relative to each other and time are called Lorentz transfo
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Atomic Model and Nuclear Physics

Atomic Model and Nuclear Physics
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Geometrical Optics

Geometrical Optics Notes for Class 11 - 12
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Physical Optics

Physical Optics Notes for Class 11 - 12
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Magnetic Effects of Electric Current and Magnetism

Magnetic Effects of Electric Current and Magnetism Notes for Class 11 - 12 Ampere's Law The line integral of the magnetic field in a continuous closed path or loop is µ₀ times the total electric current passed in the region enclosed by the path. Tesla When 1 coulomb of charge moves at a velocity of 1 ms -1 perpendicularly to the direction of a magnetic field experiencing 1 N of force, the magnetic of that magnetic field is called 1 tesla (T). Hall effect and Hall voltage When an electric conductor is set up perpendicularly at a magnetic field, a potential difference develops perpendicular to both electric current and magnetic field. This is Hall effect and the produced potential difference is called voltage or Hall voltage. Magnetic Axis An imaginary line joining the two poles of terrestrial magnet is called magnetic axis. Magnetic Middle Plain The imaginary plain perpendicular to the magnetic axis at midpoint is called magnetic middle plain. Geographical axis An imaginary line jo
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Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current

Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current Notes for Class 11 - 12
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Current Electricity

Current Electricity Notes for Class 11 - 12 Resistance The property of a conductor which opposes the flow of current is called resistance of that conductor. Kilowatt-hour The amount of electrical energy spent in one hour by a device having a power of 1 kilowatt is called a kilowatt-hour (kWh). Electrical cell The device by means of which electric energy is produced from chemical energy and the flow of current is kept ongoing is called as electrical cell. Electromotive force The work done to bring one unit of charge along with electric cell from one point to that point by rotating it through the whole circuit, i.e. the amount of energy supplied by the electric cell to keep the flow in motion is called electromotive force of that cell. Shunt A very small resistance which is used in devices by connecting  to it in parallel combination so that excess current can pass through it in order to protect the electrical device from damage due to excess current flow is called shunt. Potentiometer T
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Static Electricity

Static Electricity Notes for Class 11 - 12 Coulomb's Law The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force acts the line joining the two charges and its value depends on the nature of the medium. Electric field The area in which there is the effect of a charge is called electric field. Intensity of electric field If a positive unit charge is placed inside an electric field, the force acting on it is called intensity of electric field. Equipotential plane If all the points on a plane have the same potential, the plane is called an equipotential plane. Dipole moment The product of distance between two charges and magnitude of any of two charges is called dipole moment. Quantization of charge Atom and such objects can have charge which is equal to the integral multiple of minimum charges. This is called quantization of charge. Dielectric constant Rati
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What is biological coin?

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What is a biological coin? ATP is called the energy coin of the cell because it can store energy and can supply that energy to the cell's demand. ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is known as 'biological currency' or energy coin, where energy is stored and can be used whenever the cell demands it.  Energy is released from the photosynthesis process to generate foods through respiration. Usually, this energy is stored within ATP in the bond of the terminal phosphate group. When this bond is broken, energy is released, which can be used in different physiochemical reactions. The basic mechanism of production and utilization of energy in the body of a living organism is its bio-energy. This is not very different from the definition of energy given in physics. The energy we get from making and breaking chemical bonds in the molecules found in biological organisms is called by this name. Living organisms continuously collect energy from the environment, transform them one from on
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Development of physics

Modern civilization is the product of science. Behind this development of science, there are untiring efforts, discoveries, and innovations of scientists. Science has no national or political boundaries. The growth, development, and benefit of science are enjoyed by all people of all nations. From ancient times scientists have been contributing to the development of science. In this lesson, we will try to mention the contributions of physicists.  Thales (624-569 B.C) is famous for his predictions regarding solar eclipse. He also knew about the magnetic properties of the loadstone. Pythagoras (527-497 B.C) is a memorable name in the history of science. Besides the invention of several Geometric theorems, he made a longer-lasting contribution through his works on vibrating string. He was given several Geometric theorems. Moreover, he made long-lasting contributions through his works on vibrating strings. The present scales of musical instruments and music are partially the contribu
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The Importance of Information and Communication Technology

The Importance of Information and Communication Technology Information and Communication Technology can change the world Information and Communication Technology is the key to the governance of the world. We can see the impact of Information and Communication Technology everywhere. Information and Communication Technology is the best way to improve a community, because most developments are now impossible without Information and Communication Technology. Our everyday tasks are also depend on Information and Communication Technology now. Employment, communication, business, treatment, and research - everything is depend on Information and Communication Technology. Information and Communication Technology is improving the lifestyle of people every day. Therefore, Information and Communication Technology can change the world very easily. Importance of Information and Communication Technology in Education Information and communication Techno
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When you open the gas cylinder used for cooking, which action takes place first diffusion or effusion?

When you open the gas cylinder used for cooking, which action takes place first diffusion or effusion? The pressures of the ingredients of body spray inside and outside of the container are not the same. The pressure is greater inside the container. When the molecules of the gas come out through small pores into a low-pressure zone from a high-pressure zone, effusion happens. Due to the application of pressure, the molecules present in body spray come out through the small pores. The spontaneous movement is blocked by the pore of the container. The bigger the pore size, the more spontaneous the movement is. When the condition becomes absolutely pressure-less, it becomes diffusion. So in the case of a body spray, first effusion takes place, then diffusion happens. You may like Do I need car insurance? What is car insurance? How could I get cheaper car insurance? What is auto insurance? Why Adulterant food is a barrier to sound health? What are the producers? What are food preservati
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Meaning of Concept, Law, Principle, Postulates, Hypothesis and Theory in Physics

Meaning of Concept, Law, Principle, Postulates, Hypothesis and Theory in Physics What is Concept? The correct realisation or understanding of a subject is to have a clear idea about that subject. Or, concept is an idea or thought or a general opinion. For example, the idea of heat is a form of energy which when applied to a body or if the body is heated, then temperature increases and on releasing heat temperature decreases. What is Law? When a theory is proved by different experiments and its important facts are expressed by a statement then it is called a scientific law. For example, Ohm's law, Boyle's law and sometimes on the subject matter, e.g., conservation law of energy, thermodynamic law and sometimes on both e.g., Newton's laws of motion, Galileo's laws of falling body. What is Principle? The natural truth which can be proved directly and by the help of that truth many natural phenomena can be established, is called a principle. For example, Doppler's princ
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What is a purple alert?

What is a purple alert? A Purple Alert is for missing adults with mental, cognitive, intellectual or developmental disabilities, not related to substance abuse or Alzheimer's or dementia-related disorders, which are in the Silver Alert section. Notifications go to the media, road signs, lottery terminals and those who have signed up. "It's like bringing it home a bit more, because I know what it feels like when your loved one goes missing." With Purple Alert, local law enforcement must decide that the matter is at risk of bodily harm and can only return safely through their intervention.
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RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM

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Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the electrons are arranged within an atom. Rutherford designed an experiment for this. In this experiment, fast moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil. He selected a gold foil because he wanted as thin a layer as possible. This gold foil was about 1000 atoms thick. α-particles are doubly-charged helium ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the fast-moving α- particles have a considerable amount of energy. It was expected that α-particles would be deflected by the sub-atomic particles in the gold atoms. Since the α-particles were much heavier than the protons, he did not expect to see large deflections. Scattering of α-particles by a gold foil But, the α-particle scattering experiment gave totally unexpected results. The following observations were made: Most of the fast moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil. Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
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What is physics?

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What is physics? The branch of science which deals with matter and energy is called physics. The main objectives of physics are to establish the relation between matter and energy and to express it quantitatively on the basis of observation, experimentation, and analysis. Physics, science that deals with the structure of matter and the interactions between the fundamental constituents of the observable universe. Physics is concerned with all aspects of nature on both the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels. Its scope of study encompasses not only the behavior of objects under the action of given forces but also the nature and origin of gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear force fields. Physics is basic physical science. Until rather recent times physics and natural philosophy were used interchangeably for the science whose aim is the discovery and formulation of the fundamental laws of nature. Physics plays an important role in all the natural sciences. However such fields hav
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